Representation of women in African literature

Representation of women in African literature

 with reference to the novels, Things Fall Apart, A Grain of Wheat, and Waiting for the Barbarians

Introduction

Women’s place in society is thought a lot in contemporary studies. As well in literature, women’s representation is observed and criticized with feminist approach.

Like most literature around the world, African literature also portrayed women in different shades. Incomplete and inaccurate female characters littered early African works. The fact, like other literature, African literature was first written by men. Educated African men not only come from patriarchal society but were educated by colonizers, who also come from patriarchal society. Some feminist critics say that male francophone African writers routinely portray their female characters in the stereotype of an oppressed and subjugated wife who has little if any say in shaping her destiny or changing the system that deprives and oppresses her.

Feminist critics argue that male writers depict female characters as “defined by their relationships to men – someone’s daughter or wife, or mother, shadowy figures who hover on the fringes of the plot, suckling infants, cooking, planting their hair … they fall into a specific category of female stereotypes of… men appendages, and prostitutes, or courtesans.”

Female characters have not their own identity or story to be called or celebrated. But they are always portrayed as less heroic than men and in periphery.

“Black male writers portray women as ‘passive’ mothers with neither personality nor character or problems, accepting their condition and thus exhibiting no spirit of revolt or freedom.” Male writers routinely portray “voiceless resigned and docile woman.”

But still in some cases, as a stereotype, the idea of an ‘African dilemma’ is there with representation of women. African women have to choose between being true to their traditional culture and embracing the colonizing western culture and having equal rights is an interesting one.

The study of women characters, portrayed in African colonized literature is an interesting, with that, one can know human nature of colonizing, marginalizing or making other race gender religion subaltern.

Does African culture do the same with their women? Do they also colonizing women? How is she portrayed in African literature, how is it capturing their woman characters and men’s behaviour with them?

For that, I selected three famous novels from our course, Things Fall Apart, A Grain of Wheat, and Waiting for Barbarians. The writers of these novels are renowned and much popular. Let’s see how woman is represented by these writers one by one.

‘Things Fall Apart’ by Chinua Achebe

One of the earlier and well-known writers is Chinua Achebe. His novel ‘Things Fall Apart’ is also famous one. He has been criticized for neglecting to represent women almost completely. Many women in the novel are flat characters who are satisfied with oppressive structures like polygamy. Like Okonkwo’s wives. (He is having multiple wives!!!)

While critics are condemn Achebe for being too male-focused, there could be many reasons for this lack of female representation. One is that, readers are seeing the culture and events largely from Okonkwo’s point of view, who could be said to have unenlightened gender views by Ibo standards.

For example when he is sent to his mother’s village, he cannot answer to his uncle why a common name and saying is “mother is supreme” Uchendu, his uncle, replies, “A man belongs to his father land when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness he finds refuge in his motherland. Your mother is there to protect you. She is buried there that’s why we say mother is supreme.”

In these words women as mother is respected.

The portrayal of Okonkwo’s daughter, Ezinma, is the only visible rounded female character in the novel. There is evidence in the novel which suggests that Achebe was showing ridiculous nature of a strong patriarchal society. Ezinma was intelligent enough to eventually run the family the way Okonkwo wanted. As Okonkwo says,

“She has the right spirit”

Okonkwo is unable to think outside of his cultural paradigm, when Ezinma offers to carry Okonkwo's chair to the wrestling match, traditionally a boy's job, okonkwo says, "No, that is a boy's job." Instead of finding a way to let Ezinma run the home, he only comments that, "she should have been boy."
It shows Achebe's poverty in describing woman character in patriarchal world. Still there was not much female representation in the novel. It is important to realize that Achebe wrote this novel to justify his native culture, where women become victims, to European audiences, who were patriarchal themselves.

Overall, with the exception of Ezinma, Achebe’s female characters in the novel were not rounded or visible. In the novel, Okonkwo carries more space and female characters are marginalized in narrated patriarchal culture.

‘A Grain of Wheat’ by Ngugi Wa Thiongo

Ngugi Wa Thiongo is an internationally acclaimed African writer and human rights activist. He has usually championed for the promotion of African women and other marginalized groups in African society.

‘A Grain of Wheat’ is political narrative talking about Mau Mau Kenyan movement placed in forest. The movement included both men and women against British colonizers. Women played remarkable role directly or indirectly in that rebellion.

Ngugi pays respect to these women and celebrates their limitless sacrifices, their contribution and struggle for freedom of the homeland in this novel, ‘A Grain of Wheat’.

The novel describes heroic women as providing the invisible backbone to the movement. The writer also made use of traditional African values of womanhood to fight with the enemies.

Wambui, the major character in the novel, is a model of the resistant woman during emergency; she carried secrets from the villages to towns. Incident of Wambui and policeman is very significant in portraying her character.

Charles A. Nama argues that, “ Ngugi’s heroines occupy a special place in his fiction, especially with respect to their function as custodians and defenders of traditional Gikuyu culture.”

For example when Karanja, Kihika and Gikonyo encounter Mumbi at Gikonyo’s workshop, she is addressed respectfully as Karanja calls her “mother of Men, we have come make us some tea.” Kihika, the Mau Mau hero in the novel, refers to the homeland as mother as he proudly says, “With us, Kenya is our mother”

Female identities and anatomies become symbolically bound to motherhood and to the nation. We can find privileging of motherhood in Ngugi’s fiction.
In the novel, where Gikonyo has an inferiority, Mumbi is more self-assured and capable of action. Gikonyo's mother, Wangari, refuses to accept defeat when her husband beats and rejects her, accusing her of sexual coldness. She displays undaunted courage when she settles in Thabai with her baby son. 
As already described, Wambui introduces the active role role of women in the movement, while Karanja's mother mirrors Nyokabi's defiance of the traditional female role, as as she questions the action of men.

So, Ngugi Wa Theongo enrich African literature with portraying his woman characters strong, courageous and patriotic who equally, sometimes more, than male characters, participate in struggle for freedom.
Ngugi’s this novel is the best example of women’s heroic portrayal and his women characters become inspirational from traditional one.

‘Waiting for the Barbarians’ by J. M. Coetzee
‘Waiting for the Barbarians’ set in an indeterminate place and time. It is an allegory about the evils of colonialism. The story is told with point of view of a Magistrate.

The novel has one woman character, Barbarian girl, with whom portrayal of woman character can be studied. Actually Barbarian girl is a symbol of colonized. Her relationship with Magistrate is of slave and master. She is tortured by colonizers much. She is not only colonized by empire but as a woman by the Magistrate as well. He uses her body as an object.

The narration never gives the view point of the Barbarian girl, but the magistrate attempts to understand feminine viewpoint. He is even at one point dressed as a woman by his torturers who are servants of the empire. This event can be very symbolical.

The empire and the barbarian culture are symbolically represented by the magistrate and the barbarian girl and their relationship the same. The magistrate sometimes sympathizes the girl but it is also true that he uses as an object, he becomes cause of her sorrows.

Sometimes the girl plays a role of catalyst for the change that takes place in the magistrate; she fulfils the role as colonized woman.

Coetzee’s choice to put a girl as symbol of colonized, slave and subaltern indicates woman’s position in society and in men’s mind. Choice of woman instead of man like Robinson Crusoe symbolically shows gender inequality. It also fulfils men’s wish to see women as slave or inferior with portraying these two characters.

Conclusion

These three famous African novels represent women differently. One has no significant space for women. One made women courageous, strong, and even greater than men; and one made it slave, colonized, inferior. These different portrayals shows women’s role in different situations and different cultures, which is moving not static.

Do we really need film censorship?

Do we really need film censorship?

Introduction:

What is censorship?

Censorship can be broadly defined as the suppression of knowledge or ideas. They are used by Governments or organisations to prevent the circulation of material. In wartime information about troop activities, future battle plans etc., will be censored. In peacetime censorship can be more problematic and controversial.

The Censorship of films:
Censorship of art dates back to the early 16th century when Roman magistrates would censere or assess and give their opinion about various arts which would affect public life. By the first decade of the twentieth century, film censorship boards had come up in various parts of the world.

In different countries, films are censored to monitor for varying levels of social and political issues, the depiction of which may be deemed disturbing for the people. Violence, sexual content, abusive language, drug use, abusive content, revolutionary content, and human rights violations are common factors that come under the censorship “snip”. Censorship has been used as a political vehicle disallowing ideas contrary or inimical to the regime.

The film rating system is one of the most common forms of censorship in any country.


Film censorship in India:

The Central Board of Film Certification, the regulatory film body of India, regularly orders directors to remove anything it deems offensive, including sex, nudity, violence or subjects considered politically subversive. In India, the film censor board members have been chosen from among industry veterans, public office holders, renowned intellectuals, and public leaders.

Is censorship really necessary or needed?
Effects of media on the audience have mainly been conducted in relation to TV audiences and focussed on the issue of violence. For example, in laboratory conditions children have been shown violent film clips and then their behaviour has been monitored afterwards to see if they act more aggressively than a control group that has not been shown violent films.

Content Analysis has also been employed to count the number of acts of violence, violent language and related actions in a specific film. A high score would rate the film as being more likely to inspire aggressive reactions than a low scoring film.

Polls and surveys, and test screenings are another means of determining how an audience responds to a film.

Critics claim that such studies are limited as they do not consider the wider context of the film and its effect on the viewer. A direct cause and effect - viewing a violent film causing aggressive behaviour - has been very hard to establish on a scientific basis.

According to the Supreme Court of India:

“Film censorship becomes necessary because a film motivates thought and action and assures a high degree of attention and retention as compared to the printed word. The combination of act and speech, sight and sound in semi darkness of the theatre with elimination of all distracting ideas will have a strong impact on the minds of the viewers and can affect emotions...” (Wikipedia)

But if movies affect human mind and behaviour so much than it is not in anyone’s hand to control. It means censorship can censor some scenes of the movie but it cannot control incepting ideas indirectly by movies.

As scenes of smoking have been censored in India and it is compulsory to show notice of injuries of smoking. But in the movies central character, like hero or protagonist is smoking, no one will going to read the given notice but the impact of that scene affects viewers mind that to smoke is a heroic act.

Considering cinema as one genre of art, it also shows mirror of society, mirror to society. If all the movies deal with moral messaging or preaching than who will going to see them?! And with so many morals it becomes religious preacher.

If movies are about human life and for humans, if it is showing all human emotions than, there must be all emotions, all Rasas, including disgust or erotic or fury etc.

In ‘modern’ time movies are not melodramatic; they have not all good or virtuous things to say. Modern Indian cinema is becoming more ‘life like’. It tries to express all human emotions in more realistic way. There is no melodrama, no exaggeration, and no supernatural elements.

But we should also not forget that, recent movies have more number of vulgar scenes, have been put by the directors so as to collect high revenues for the movie.

Expression of human emotions is another thing, which is realistic and has more artistic ability. But at some extent, it is converted into vulgarity by some cheap movies. And slowly and steadily, this vulgarity becomes fashion. Now there is not any kind of realism but it becomes lusty and vulgar which can damage society and culture.

For example, objectification of female body. Some parallel movies, in context of their story and background, have portrayed women character in their gray shades, but the aim is to present reality. Like the movie Talash – which talks about prostitutes- prostitution.

But we can hardly find any recent popular movie which has not item song or vulgar song, lyrics, cheap double meaning comedy. With these types of movies, one can judge, not only taste of people, but culture and its mentality. For example recent movies of Sunny Leone, which has no reality, emotions or good story, there are only for earning money.

This type of objectification harms society, culture and increase crime ratio. For this reason film censorship is needed more.

Censorship can erase some of the vulgar and adult scenes from the movie, but the harm movie is doing cannot be controlled by censor board. Because when anything is banned or prohibited, it is seen more with excitement and amusement to know why it is prohibited. Indirect way whatever the movie is incepting cannot be controlled by anyone, by censor board.

To control harm of culture, youth or society, people should change their mentality. Movies also have to change. They must have mature, realistic content, not vulgar nude or violent.

It doesn’t mean that every movie has moral preaching or all virtuous things. Even religious books also don’t have all good things. There is violence in every religious book like Ramayana or Mahabharata. But films have at least mature content not cheap or vulgar that affects viewers mind so much.

At some extent film censorship is necessary to filter some movies, which is cheap and full of vulgarity. But when censorship becomes barrier to pure, free art, means realistic, critically appreciated movies; it becomes harmful to art and create bad impression of rigid society.

It also raises question of freedom of expression, if film censorship interferes much. But this freedom should not be turned into anarchy or chaos otherwise it creates culture chaotic and without morality or values.

The best Indian examples are…

In 2003 Indian censor board banned the film 'Gulabi Aina' (Pink Mirror), a film on Indian transsexuals, produced by Shridhar Rangayan. The board cited that the film was vulgar and offensive. The film maker appealed twice again unsuccessfully. The film still remains banned in India.

But has screened at numerous festivals all over the world and won awards. The critics have appreciated it for its sensitive and touching portrayal of marginalized community.

So, film censorship has to understand and differentiate which movie presents human emotions in more realistic way and which movie is incepting vulgarity, violence and objectifying female body with its vulgar and cheap comments.

Board is necessary if it recognises films and their impact on society appropriately. But banning never helps to protect society, or to control culture. It shows rigidity and immaturity of society.

Society should be mature enough not only for making movies but to understand difference between real and imagined. And if society becomes so mature, free, acceptable and artistic, any kind of censorship is not needed. There will be complete freedom of expression, and even society or public will not accept, reject cheap or vulgar films automatically and they will never affect mature society any more…


Bibliography
Wikipedia contributors. "Censorship in India." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 6 Nov. 2014. Web. 20 Mar. 2015

http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/ArticleCensorship.html

Ann Gray's concept of knowability with reference to 'The Sense of an Ending'

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University Bhavnagar

Smt. S. B. Guardy Department of English

Written by: Poojaba G. Jadeja
Roll No.: 20

Year: 2015, Semester: 4th

Paper:10: The New Literature

Ann Gray’s concept of knowability

 with reference to The Sense of an Ending

Introduction:

Ann Gray in ‘Research Practice for Cultural studies’ (2003) elaborates three fundamental research questions that structure any research project.

1. What is there that can be known – what is knowable?

2. What is the relation of the knower to the known?

3. How do we find things out? 

A brief about The Sense of an Ending:

It is a novel, written by Julian Barnes. The Man Booker Prize winner novel is famous for its post-modern narrative technique, as memory novel and psychological thriller.

The story is of an old man Tony Webster, narrator, who tries to revisit his past and solve some of unsolved mysteries. His quest for getting knowledge about his friend – Adrian’s suicide and other characters lives can be elaborated with concept of knowability and three methodological questions. 

To get more idea about book, visit this small animated video of summery...

What is there that can be known – what is knowable?

This is an ontological question, it refers to the aspect of social reality to be studied, but it also deals with assumptions we are willing to make about the nature of reality. It requires you to take a position in relation to your project and to define your ‘knowable space’. How you construct your knowable space and how you go about exploring and investigating that knowable space will depend upon your theoretical approach to the social world and the actors

or texts involved. (Gray)

With reference to The Sense of an Ending

Illustrations from the text:

The novel describes journey or quest of getting knowledge of Tony Webster, who didn’t get, who never get properly!! The narrator tells his story and all the incidents with his memory and tries to evaluate past, and with that he also tries to get knowledge.

For Tony ‘Knowable’ is not only to know the reason of Adrian’s suicide or his diary or about Veronica but also to know about his own life, to illustrate his own memory and self examine, why he is not getting or what is problem with him.

As it is mentioned in explanation that,

“…it also deals with assumptions we are willing to make about the nature of reality…”

Here Tony, while in the process of getting knowledge, assumes many things at different stages.

For example: after part one, he is in assumption that ‘he knows’ all the things. After getting letter, he supposes that he now knows about Veronica and Adrian. After watching Adrian’s son, he becomes very sure that now he knows all the things… 

His all assumptions are constructed. With these stages, constructed knowledge, he didn’t get, or reach to true knowledge. With these stages his ‘knowable space’ is also changing and moving.

“How you construct your knowable space and how you go about exploring and investigating that knowable space will depend upon your theoretical approach…”

Tony does not stop with his assumptions (like Silas in Da Vinci Code). His one of the knowable space is “himself”. And one of the reasons of his keep investigating and processing towards knowledge, ignoring his assumptions, is his “self” as knowable space and his approach towards other events like Veronica’s words “you still don’t get it…” or other characters’ attitude towards him and his own memory, who tells him as he is not able to get sense.

Because of some incidences, he comes to know that whatever he believes is his assumptions and he proceed further. He decides his ‘knowable space’ with illustrating and investigating. He keeps on trying to reach true knowledge with his approach of investigating like going into several pubs and shops several times, ignoring his believed, constructed assumptions. 

What is the relation of the knower to the known?  

epistemological question and, put simply, asks how we know what we know. The assumptions that are made about this depend on how we perceive of the reality, and, although Guba does not suggest this, how we are located as subjects within our research. What we bring to our work, how our own knowledge and experience is brought to bear on the research itself will certainly shape it.

It is important to make these explicit. The point about who we are and how we relate to the project itself is a key issue. (Gray)

Illustrations from the text:

Relationship between knower and known is very important to evaluate. In the novel, Tony tells his own experiences with his memory. He is in self search and also in search of reasons and relations of other characters’ life.

In this process of knowing, Tony’s relationship is with self. He is insider. In his attempts of knowing anything his self becomes barrier. For example, his memory, a mirror or self projection always distract him.

He knows that Adrian and Veronica have relationship after his break up with her and, he also came to know from his friend that Adrian was happy and in love before his death. With these two statements, he makes an assumption that the reason for Adrian’s death or before his death he is in love with Veronica.

Only because of his partial memory, he cannot know that Adrian has relationship with Mr. Sarah Ford. As he is subjective and inside his memory and assumptions, he cannot know the things clearly.

All the time, he gets true knowledge from outside. Like, he comes to know about his cruel letter when it is given by Veronica.

He can know himself when Margaret communicates with him. Even he gets the “Knowledge” about young Adrian when other person Terry tells him that “Mary is not his mother, but sister…”

So, when ‘he is in his own’, he cannot reach to the knowledge. Even when he assumes that the young Adrian is son of Adrian and Veronica, if Veronica did not tell him “You still don’t get…” perhaps he can never reach to his knowledge.

Thus, in Tony’s case the relationship is self with self and self itself becomes barrier of knowledge. And whenever Tony becomes objective, he gets knowledge from outside and reach where he wants to…

So, his view is from inside and he perceives reality from outside. With ignoring his assumptions, he shapes his way to get knowledge from outside.

How do we find things out? Or What is the procedure of knowledge?

This is methodological questions. What kind of methods must I employ in order to know, or to put me in a position of being able to interpret and analyse this aspect of the social world? This, then, is where one can begin to think about the kinds of data we need and how to gather it in order to begin to explore research questions. (Gray)

 Illustrations from the text:

With example of both chapters and narrative style, we can say, Tony always tries to aware readers that, whatever he is telling is not hundred percent true but it is what he remembers. Tony, in his narration, goes on deconstructing his own words. He even accepts that what he said is not trustworthy but with his own cast of mind. Some of beautiful quotes in the novel suggest this thing clearly.

One of the way, to get knowledge of Tony, is to become out of own self. At some stage, he accepts that, “he is not getting sense” means he knows that still he has to work hard to get knowledge (not like Silas or Fache in Da Vinci Code).

Though he constructed many assumptions in his case, from outside, he is also getting some kind of hints or knowledge which proves that he is not getting properly. So, he is not in blindness, but he keeps trying.

At every stage, he comes to know from outside. He knows his relationship with known and also barriers of his knowledge. So, he tries to be objective from subjective. He rejects his assumptions and accepts hints from outside with being objective.

He doubts his statements and tries to think the way knowledge comes to him from outside. In Tony’s procedure of knowledge, knowledge dawn upon him from outside, from other characters, after his several attempts.

Throughout the novel, everyone tries to give him hints or signs. Though he has inability to understand signs, which are in front of his eyes, and get the ‘sense’, he can reach to knowledge because of his ability to accept his inabilities, and to become objective with knowing his own self. He knows his barrier of his knowledge and tries to go beyond it, to overcome it.

Conclusion:

Thus, Tony’s journey to his knowable space is going on expanding in the second part and he tries to overcome from his subjective relationship with his self.

In the novel, Tony, the narrator’s quest for knowledge is interesting and amazing, and worthy to study. It becomes very exiting end when Tony meets with his knowledge and gets “his sense” after long journey.

Bibliography

Gray, Ann. Research Practice for Cultural studies. (2003) .

Barnes, Julian. The Sense of an Ending (2011)

Poe's heroes as Villains

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University Bhavnagar

Smt. S. B. Guardy Department of English

Written by: Poojaba G. Jadeja
Roll No.: 20

Year: 2014, Semester: 3rd 

Paper:10: The American Literature

Edger Allan Poe’s Heroes as Villains

Introduction:

Edger Allan Poe is a famous American writer, who is renowned for his ‘horror and mystery’ tales. He is not only short-story writer, but his poetry is also well-appreciated. Even the language of his short-stories is poetic and musical.

Poe’s stories are about murder, revenge, insanity, torture and adventure. His gothic stories are too famous that many modern movies take an idea from his stories. His stories have mystery and secret that reader cannot put aside his interest and reading.

His stories like “Berenice” is horror story about teeth, “The Black Cat” is a tale of a Cat, “The Cask of Amontillado” is a revenge story, in his stories like “ The Facts in the case of M. Valdemar” and “Ligeia”, supernatural elements are described.

The characters of most of the stories by Poe are psychologically ill, suffering from psycho-phobia, split personality, insanity or psychological disorders.

As his stories also present the theme of horror, murder, death, revenge, burial of living person, torture and talking with dead persons, their characters are also not normal human beings. They are not social or emotional but against humanity and unsocial. That’s why, in Poe’s every stories, one cannot find more than five characters. And in the most of the stories, there are only two characters.

Poe also wrote adventure stories, love stories, detective stories but his vast contribution is on horror stories. His horror, mysterious, gothic stories are evaluated, criticised often by many critics.

One critic noted about Poe’s unsocial stories that, the tale is precluded from expounding facts and experiences that are socially important; therefore it deals with the exceptional with something that arrests reader’s curiosity from the start.

Another French critic, M. Brunetiere noticed the social insignificance of the incident upon which the tales are based. He points out that,

“The material for the tale is to be sought in certain peculiarities or variations of passions, which, though psychologically or pathologically interesting are socially insignificant. The incidents are never taken out of the main way of life, but out of its border-things that happen on the margin.”

Poe gives experiences that are on the margin of sanity. And as the critics noted, his characters are also not social but at the margin of sanity, not as normal human beings.

Poe’s characters are generally abnormal and psychologically ill. And because of their psychological disorder, events, which are inhuman, occur. Their neurotic nature becomes reason of the tragic end. Like in the “Tell-Tale Heart” the narrator is suffering from phobia of the old man’s eyes, which leads him to kill the old man.

In many of the stories, the characters are inhuman. They are murders, even they can bury person alive. Their murders are so cruel that it raises fear and terror on the minds of readers. In every story, all the deeds, the characters do, are inhuman and cruel than beasts. For example, the stories like, ‘The Black Cat’, ‘The Tell-Tale Heart’, ‘The Cask of Amontillado’ , ‘Fall of the House of Usher’, ‘The Premature Burial’, the characters inhumanly kills another fellow without any valid reason. These stories have murderers as a hero and innocent victims.

As these characters are inhuman and abnormal, Poe’s characters, who wanted to take revenge, have no logical reasons. Only because of very small issues or insults, they killed cruelly others to take revenge. The stories like, ‘The Cask of Amontillado’, ‘The Black Cat’, ‘William Wilson’ and many other stories are revenge stories, in which the narrator or the character murders inhumanly to take revenge of his insult according to his belief.

Poe’s female characters have not feminine emotions or feelings but they are also suffering from illness, split personality and interested in killing their victims. They are also portrayed as horrible, mysterious and scarifying, with whom Poe gives gothic touch to the stories. Stories like, ‘The Fall of the House of Usher’, ‘Ligeia’ have horrible female characters, who has not emotion of love, pity or soft feelings but psychologically ill and interested in killing other persons.

As Poe’s characters are murderers and criminals, they are immoral. Stories of Poe do not suggest any moral message, but the deeds of the characters are immoral. Even the heroes made victim the persons who are innocent, moral and don’t done anything wrong with the character. The characters have no morality or moral conscience. They have not emotions of love, pity, sympathy for human beings, even for their family members or relatives. Like, in the story, ‘The Black Cat’, the narrator kills his innocent wife. In ‘Tell-tale Heart’, the narrator kills the sane and genuine old man, who never be wrong to him.

These characters are so immoral that they have not ‘Guilt Conscious’. After murdering cruelly, the characters have not feeling of guilt, sorrow for their bad deeds. With psychoanalysis, one can note that, all the characters are affected by their ‘Id’ and have no concern with ‘Ego’ and ‘Super ego’.  So, they seem as inhuman and immoral, without having human values. That is the most interesting and noteworthy characteristic of the characters of Poe’s short stories.

Sometimes, Poe describes supernatural elements in his stories. His characters are so passionate that even death cannot stop them. Poe describes extra-ordinary, supernatural characters in his stories. They are interested in taking revenge even after their death.

So, Poe presented his villains – heroes so passionately, who are men of action, that they can be murderer or bury living person.

All the characteristics suggest that, these characters have no human emotions, morality and sanity, but they are criminals, murderers, anti-social like villains who harmed others just because of their personal neurotic condition or psychological illness.

They have not element of ‘Hero’ but they are anti-heroes and inhuman. So, most of the characters of Poe’s stories are villains – anti-heroes.

• Poe’s Heroes as Villains:

There are some examples of major characters of Poe’s tales, who are in the centre of the story; ‘Hero’ but their inhuman deed made them villains of the stories. These are some examples of stories and characters which has villains as hero.

Montresor (narrator):            (The Cask of Amontillado)

He is the narrator who narrates the story of his friend Fortunado. The narrator cold heartedly murders his friend, Fortunado with walling him alive. The reason of his killing is very silly and illogical. But the narrator Montresor is so passionate and pitiless that he buries his friend behind the bricks without feeling bad or sorrowful for him. He is such a villain like Iago in Shakespeare’s ‘Othello’ who cannot be recognized by victims as their villains or reason of suffering and death. As he also accepts,

“…to smile in his face, and he did not perceive that my smile now was at the thought of his immolation.”

Unnamed narrator:                       

  (The Tell-tale Heart)

Only because of having fear from pale, blue eyes of old man, he kills cruelly kind and gentle old man. The narrator of this story is a murderer. He not only killed old man but, with cold-heartedly cut the dead body like a beast. He has not a guilt conscious, but as he has psycho-phobia, he cannot bare the sound of heartbeats, which he constantly heard, and accepts his crime.

He is such a villain who has not desire for money or not any reason for killing, still he kills only because of his mental problem, insanity.

Unnamed narrator:                              (The Black Cat)

Narrator is a drunkard and killed his innocent wife and hanged his pet animal-Cat (Pluto) inhumanly. The character or the narrator himself narrated his story of murdering his pet cat and also torturing his wife, killing and burying her on the wall.

The way his noble character changes into villain is described by him. He is so passionate and merciless that he hanged his lovely cat. And because of fear he wanted to kill another cat. Even he is so devil like figure, that he kills his wife without any reason. Having criminal mind, he is intelligent enough to hide his crime and he walled his wife behind the bricks of his room. His character is like ‘Monster’ who has not pity and love for animals or even for humans but habit of killing.

Other characters, which are not presented as hero or central figure, with power of goodness and morality but immoral and with devilish mind are described below…,

Prince Prospero:                                                            

(The Masque of the Red Death)

Though he is a prince, he tries to escape from death like cowards instead of fighting like hero. The character is so fearful that he tries to escape from red death as described in the story. He did not take care of his kingdom, but invites healthy friends from outside. He is a coward, fearful and immoral, even has no values of prince, who has not courage like hero.

Madeline Usher:                           (The fall of the House of Usher)

Woman character, she is suffering from psychological illness. And she tries to kill her twin brother Roderick Usher. Even she return from death to kill her brother, both died at the end of the story. She is the feminine figure, like other female characters of Poe’s story, which has not beauty and love but haunting feelings.

William Wilson:                                                           

(William Wilson)

The character is psychologically abnormal and tries to commit suicide as he understand and fearful with himself. He believes that there are two characters and he tries to kill another character having similar name. He has not elements of normal human beings but his character is with all the vices and gray shade of mind who tries to kill himself, believing as other person.  

Conclusion:

With these examples of characters, we can say that, Poe’s characters have no morality and human values, but they are presented with evil deeds, monstrous figures and criminal minds.

Poe’s most of the tales are psychological, horror, gothic, detective, supernatural, mysterious, they are related to crime and have characters who are abnormal, murderers and suffering from their own mentality.

In American literature, Poe has his own place because of his unique stories. He is famous for his narrative style, technique and use of language. Though his mysterious stories are famous, there is verity of themes and issues in his stories. Human psychology is well presented in Poe’s tales.

It has a power of fascination that one cannot keep aside reading, even the interest cannot move for a moment while reading, because of Poe’s liveliness and power of description.

Critical overview on essay by C. Kannan

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University Bhavnagar

Smt. S. B. Guardy Department of English

Written by: Poojaba G. Jadeja
Roll No.: 20

Year: 2014, Semester: 3rd 

Paper:12: English Language Teaching

Critical overview on 
“Decolonizing teaching Materials and Strategies: Towards an alternative pedagogic”
by C. Kannan

In the essay, “Decolonizing teaching Materials and Strategies: Towards an alternative pedagogic”, C.Kannan presents colonial methods in English language teaching and tries to suggest alternative methods in ELT in India. He finds effects on colonialism in English language teaching in India and objects it. He starts with…

“The colonial paradigm always concentrated on projecting and imposing the attitude of the British.”

He tries to say that, even today after independence of India, in education system colonialism rules. Though the objectives of teaching English changed, a considerable efficiency in ELT has not been achieved.

He clearly says that, pre-independent India had a philosophically sound and psychologically reasonable pedagogic widely practiced with culture specificity. But in the modern times India has not succeeded in establishing an Indian education system based on our forms, our style, and its own ethos.

Kannan discusses the very important point in ELT literature as content of language teaching. He argues that till the learner has not acquired the required language abilities, he cannot enjoy the learning material literature; because the language of literature is a very artistic and not very easy to understand. Because of this strange and complex literature as a learning material or as a content of ELT, this exercise of learning English becomes fertile. So, it is necessary to have, to learn basic language skills to appreciate literature.

Having objection towards colonial contemporary teaching materials and methods, he suggests some different way of teaching English in India with changing methods and materials.

In his essay he presents some alternative pedagogies of teaching English in India without effects of colonialism. He explains that, the contemporary Indian scenario alludes to the socio-cultural milieu and the needs of the nation. He suggests to make change in ELT to modernise India. With giving answers, he defines what Modernization is,

“Modernization is not westernization. It is an attitudinal change of the individual in his attempt to keep the world change.”

Still India depends much on the colonial systems, teaching materials of ELT, even in post-colonial context. He puts his objection about that with his logical views.

In most of the universities, English courses have books of English literature and English masterpieces in India. But the learners are not familiar with culture, context and background. In these materials, there is total ignorance of the ‘Basha’ literature.

It means the learners mother tongue and its literary tradition, present writings are must in teaching materials. Learner’s real life experiences and familiar contextualization must be main chunk of the teaching materials, because the learning materials with unfamiliar culture components baffle young learners. They may experience a sort of ‘culture shock’ and it will leads to ‘stigmatization’.

He points out where the colonialism effects on our education system that, British educationalists impose their cultural forms through learning materials, imperial ideologies become objects of studies with ignoring the nativeness. He writes,

“Perhaps the western education system must have resulted in a ‘liberating influence’ upon the Indians. And this liberating influence was achieved at the cost of rejecting our own identity and way of thinking.”

And he suggests to free from this, improving the existing teaching strategies, there is a need to reconsider the quality of the teacher, teaching materials, learners and environment.

For example:

To wish anyone ‘Good Morning’ is western idea or approach, because of having cloudy weather, they wish Good Morning when the weather is clear. But still we teach students, to start with hi or hello to communicate. Instead of these words, hi, hello or Good Morning, we, in India, should teach to start communication with ‘Namaste’ or other Indian cultural words.

Some suggestions for improving English language teaching, according to C. Kannan are given below:

• Ø  Learning environment with learner centeredness, learner and teacher learner interaction.
• Ø  Proper arrangements of the study materials
• Ø  Teachers must be highly resourceful and creative to innovate new classroom techniques, because teaching is an art and effective teaching leads to effortless learning.
• Ø  The various methods can be replaced by new techniques.

C. Kannan, then, explains the concept of error analysis, Contrastive analysis and Pedagogic analysis.

• Error analysis: Error analysis will be followed by remedial teaching to test the common errors of learners.

• Contrastive analysis: In Contrastive analysis, the basic similarities and contrasts in the mother tongue and the target language is studied.

These two terms are familiar in education contributed by linguistics.

• Pedagogic analysis: Pedagogic analysis is an attempt to analyse the subject matter through the eyes of the learner. It is an endeavour to help the learner in the process of making the learning material into a receivable form.

Pedagogic analysis with special reference to a teaching module in ELT consists of the following major components. According to Kannan, identification of the major and minor concepts is the first component in the module. Like, in a poem, the concentration is in the imagery pattern, figures of speech, and linguistic nuances etc. all these elements which render ‘poetic qualities are to be assimilated by the teacher and the identification of the teaching items is the basic step. Kannan relates this step in Indian context that, as a second language learner, Indian learners need some basic training in phonetics.

Another step is the identification of the functional aspects reflected in the lesson as structures. The next step is preparation of pre-diagnostic test items are made to identify the lapses. It is an attempt to identify the language skills which are to be included.

These stages are followed by comparing and identifying new topics and items aiming at an interdisciplinary approach.

He, further, discusses the problems and difficulties of a learner of ELT. He writes, in a second language communication becomes a near improbability in a teacher dominated classroom. And he openly supports learner centered environment in ELT. He adds,

“The teacher must be active to make students ‘function’ English. Drag the outside reality into the class room and in the speech act try to overcome the communication gap between the interlocutors.”

He, then, explains that, teachers have to relate the study of English to actual needs of the learner insists for a need-based syllabus.  He describes about evaluation of ELT in different times. Like oral approach or situational language teaching associated with the British linguist s during 1980s. The audio-lingual method flourished during the 1050s was derived from the structural linguistics. Communicative language teaching emerged as a method during late 1960s.

He talks about teaching skills, which can improve the professional competency of the teacher. He suggests seven skills for ELT teachers to teach effectively and with new pedagogies and make learner centred classroom.

He accepts about flexibility in ELT, teaching techniques, that any particular approach in ELT without any consideration for the context and specificity is not feasible.

According to him language is a power and discourse both, in colonial period, ELT had the main objective of westernization. There is an inevitable need for demolishing the conventional methods manipulated by the dominant culture.  

And the traditional approaches and objectives of ELT must be refined to balance them with the present needs. To enrich our pedagogical strategies according to current trends and needs of the society, we have to consider the integration of the sensibility of the present society with a clear perspective of the developing world.

He gives importance to productive skills of learners and also presents the idea about phonetic learning. Teaching spoken English with the main objective in India is not a complex process. Because the time has to come to abandon the archaic name ‘received pronunciation’. The concept of general Indian English has become out of context, and in the context of globalization, internal intelligibility is a desirable factor. And for the better pronunciation learning, he points out ‘Functional method’ rather than formal teaching method.

About the debate of literature and language, he says, literary texts and learning materials based on real life situations will create an awareness regarding the strategy of teaching language through literature.

In concluding part he talked about colonialism in ELT and need to change, “During the colonial period the politics and culture of the dominant group were endorsed. The urge to decolonise directly alludes to the need to include alternative discourses instead of the old stereotyped.”

By alternative discourses, he means the popular culture and literature of the marginalized. With different perspective of teaching, we have to reform or reawaken subaltern culture according to Kannan.

He answers to change the form in ELT that, 

“The ELT situation in India can be changed and improved by analysing the entry-level competence and the needs envisaged.”

At the conclusion, he writes, 

“ELT should not be a continuation of the out-dated age-old tradition- should not be a residue of the colonial attitude. A post-colonial attitude must be evolved in terms of ELT.”

He, then, suggests with post-colonial attitude that, “In preparing teaching materials, we have to select and talk about our own literatures, languages and values through English…we still endorse the dominant politics and culture of the mainstream which is leading towards ‘interior colonialism’."

Conclusion:

The essay by C. Kannan suggests some changes in ELT with having post-colonial attitude. The writer also tries to give some good suggestion about teaching strategies and pedagogies which is related to our Indian culture and context without colonial effects.

But the main issue is that the ‘English’ language itself is colonized and if we want to decolonized, we should change not only methods and materials of ELT but ELT itself. Still the writer C. Kannan presents good afford in decolonizing ELT-the subject and it’s technique in this essay, with giving some solutions.    

"Waiting for Godot" with Religious interpretations

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University Bhavnagar

Smt. S. B. Guardy Department of English

Written by: Poojaba G. Jadeja
Roll No.: 20

Year: 2014, Semester: 3rd 

Paper:9: The Modernist Literature

“Waiting for Godot”
 with religious interpretations

• Introduction:

Samuel Beckett is a famous Irish dramatist and novelist. “Waiting for Godot” is his master piece. The play is one of the classic works of theatre of absurd. It is multilayered drama which has many interpretations.

The play seems absurd but with a deep religious meaning. Though the play commonly interpreted within the context of the theatre of absurd, existentialist literature, it is also Christian allegory and also interpreted with religious interpretations.

The play has very strong evidences of theory of existentialism, but still, it can be related with many other religious interpretations. Like, Christian myth of two thieves, waiting for second coming of Jesus Christ, Hindu philosophy and its ‘Avatar’ and other interpretations.

• Christian mythical interpretations:

When someone asked about the theme of “Waiting for Godot”, Beckett is reported to have referred to the sentence in the writings of St. Augustine,

“Do not despair: one of the thieves was saved. Do not presume: one of the thieves was damned.”

The theme of the two thieves on the cross, the theme of the uncertainty of the hope of the salvation and the chance bestowal of divine grace, does indeed pervade the whole play. Two characters Vladimir and Estragon are shown as tramps or thieves. At the beginning, Vladimir refers this,

“One of the thieves was saved. It’s a reasonable percentage.”

And in the act 1, he refers this several times. Even Vladimir is shown talking about repentance. He several times says to Estragon to wait for Mr. Godot and when Estragon asks the reason, he says, Mr. Godot, otherwise punish them!

Beckett, though, wrote these dialogues quite funny and in light mood, it has strong meanings.

“Vladimir: One of the thieves was saved. It’s a reasonable percentage. GogoEstragon: What?
Vladimir: suppose we repented.
Estragon: Repented what?Vladimir: Oh…we wouldn’t have to go into the details. Estragon: Our being born?”

It means Vladimir has faith in the myth and he is craving for salvation. He wants to be one of the thieves, who saved.

In the second act, while passing the time, they are thinking and talking about dead voices, it also seems that they are thinking about their past acts and evaluating their own deeds. Vladimir and Estragon talk incessantly because they want to hear the ‘dead voices’ which explore the mysteries of being and the self to the limits of anguish and suffering.

There is another Christian myth described in the dialogues between the boy and Vladimir. The boy, who looks after the goats is not beaten but, his brother who looks after Mr. Godot’s ships is beaten. This incident refers to myth of two sons of Adam Cain and Abel. There too the Lord’s grace fell on one rather than other without any rational explanation.

Here Godot also acts contrary/similarly to Jesus Christ. It can be interpreted as God’s punishment or nature of giving punishments. And Vladimir also gives reason to Estragon that if they don’t wait for Mr. Godot, he will punish them.

The act of waiting and Vladimir’s dialogue to boy, “Tell him that you saw me” seems that he is waiting for damnation. Even the thought of repentance is also present in the play.  

Thus, the play has very strong effect of Christian ideas of salvation, repentance including its myths.

• Biblical elements in “Waiting for Godot”:

As it has many Christian ideas, it is also related with many biblical elements and symbols. At the beginning of the play, Vladimir asks Estragon, have he read the Bible or not. Throughout the play, biblical, Christian elements are very much presented with the symbols.

The background image of ‘Tree’ has multiple meanings, and religious interpretation see as it is an image of cross where Jesus Christ was crucified. Their waiting also reflects the basic biblical idea of Christ’s returns on the Doomsday.

This play has strong religious connections, as it is also known as religious allegory. As William Mueller observed,

“The human predicament described in Beckett’s first play is that of man living on the Saturday after the Friday of the crucifixion, and not really knowing if all hope is dead or if the next day will bring the life which has been promised.”

• Mr. Godot and Second coming:

 

One popular interpretation of waiting for Godot is the second coming aspect. One meaning of Mr. Godot is none other but ‘God’ and there are many clues and evidences in the play which symbolically says, that Mr. Godot is a symbol for God.

Religious interpretation posits Vladimir and Estragon as humanity waiting for the elusive return of a saviour. This interpretation makes pozzo into the pope and Lucky into the faithful. Another evidence is the title itself; the name ‘Godot’ also proves it. The name suggests ‘God’-OT it must have some significance. And it must be interpreted religious way. It is also seen in the dialogues between Vladimir and the boy.

“Vladimir: (softly) has he a beard, Mr. Godot?Boy: yes, sir.Vladimir: fair or … (he hesitates)… or black?Boy: I think It’s white, sir.”

The personality, Beckett describes is much related with image of Christian God. This description clearly shows that Mr. Godot means God.

Other dialogues between Vladimir and Estragon describe characteristics of Mr. Godot. Let’s evaluate these dialogues.

“Estragon: And if we dropped him? (Pause) If we dropped him?
Vladimir: He’d punish us.Estragon: And if he comes?Vladimir: We’ll be saved.”

It means Mr. Godot will give punishment if they leave and Mr. Godot is saviour also, they will be rewarded, if they wait. As it is already described, the tree symbolises cross where Christ was crucified and they are waiting there.

Throughout the play, the mute character Godot symbolises God, as we are waiting for God – a saviour from our sorrows and sufferings. This uncertain, second coming of God is well presented, who, when, where – questions about God and Godot both are unanswered in reality as well in the play.

• “Waiting for Godot” with Hindu philosophy and ideas:

In Hindu religion, there is also an idea of an ‘Avatar’ for whom people are waiting.  Though the play has not much connection with Hindu religious ideas, it can be interpreted and connected with some philosophical and spiritual ideas as the play is multi-layered.

The concept of ‘Nothingness’ can be interpreted with Hindu philosophy, According to it, the world and everything, every action is ‘Maya’ has no meaning but only ‘illusion’. Other interpretation of Hindu philosophy says, ‘karma’, the act must be done. The dialogue of Vladimir,

“Let us do something while we have the chance….Let us make the most of it, before it is too late!”

This ‘performative’ potency suggests the finally achieved actions means ‘karma’.

There are several other interpretations of Hindu philosophy and spirituality can be possible. The idea of hope as waiting (without dying) is also a Hindu philosophic idea. Though it has no connection with Hindu ideas, it is worthy to be studied with many interpretations.

• Religious dilemma in “Waiting for Godot”:

The play is mostly interpreted as an Existential play. There are many elements which favour existentialism more than even religious interpretations.

But to promote existentialist views and ideas, and to present religious ideas’ irrationality, Beckett presents religious dilemma, counter arguments against religion. It becomes very strong, interesting point of discussion and debate in the play.

The famous myth of two thieves used in the play, is deconstructed by the writer. When Vladimir says, “One of the thieves was saved. It’s a reasonable percentage.” Later he enlarges on this subject. He asks why only one of the thieves is supposed to have been saved and other damned?

He raises questions why only one of four Evangelists speaks of a thief being saved, not other three. So, it cannot be hundred percent true! He intelligently points out that, it is curious fact that everybody seems to believe that one witness. This deconstructing point can be seen in Vladimir’s and Estragon’s dialogues.

Estragon: Who believes him?Vladimir: Everybody. It’s the only version they know.Estragon: people are bloody ignorant apes.

Estragon speaks, criticizes human mentality, whose attitude has been one of scepticism throughout the play.

Beckett, very intentionally, created these two characters- Estragon and Vladimir. Among them Vladimir is shown more intelligent, craving for salvation, moral, religious, and thinker than Estragon.

Estragon seems dumb, irreligious, sleeping-not thoughtful, only craving for necessary things for body but not interested in spiritual thinking.

Two ideas about existentialism and spiritual/religious waiting clashes in the play. When Vladimir says to repent, Estragon asks for reason. Two concept of religious and atheist are put together with these two characters.

Throughout the play, Vladimir is thinking about repentance, salvation, God, Bible and many other religious things. He, very hopefully, waiting for Mr. Godot to come and to be saved. But Estragon is very forgetful, he forgets everything, he has no concern with these religious thoughts.

Uncertainty of God or Mr. Godot is also questioned in the play. Both characters are waiting and passing time without doing anything, but Mr. Godot does not come. It can also be interpreted that, “Nothing to be done” while waiting for god and human being become passive while waiting.

As an existentialist idea, they want to die, and wait for another day with hope. It is quite confusing, they both have hope for God or Godot to come but they find hopelessness or meaningless to wait, so they die.

The play has idea of existentialism as well as religious. And throughout the play, this dilemma goes on. Perhaps, it shows Beckett’s own dilemma as he is atheist.

• Conclusion:

It is strongly believed that the play has ideas of existentialism. But event to support existentialism, writer shows religious ideas. And he also tries to deconstruct it. Consciously or unconsciously, writer presents many Christian myths and Biblical images.

As biography suggests, Beckett knows about all the Christian philosophical, spiritual ideas from childhood. So, the play has many Christian values like repentance, craving for  salvation, faith in God, fear of God and hope for to be saved, and ‘coming of Mr. Godot’. Even Vladimir’s character is full with Christian values like he feeds and helps Estragon as true friend, he wants to help Pozzo and has desire to be saved.

As it is discussed earlier, “Waiting for Godot” has many Biblical, Christian symbols; one of the interpretations of the play is as ‘religious allegory’. But as the play has many interpretations and deep layers, it cannot be final and only interpretation.

“Waiting for Godot” shows the genius of Beckett and has very strong literariness that reader can interpret many meanings out of this small play.